Conflicts Related to Native Traditions

CONFLICTS RELATED TO NATIVE AMERICAN TRADITIONS

Introduction

The Othering & Belonging Institute presents on their website with the name Othering & Belonging: Expanding the Circle of Human Concern a comparative approach of interrelationship between people or groups of people, which demonstrates and analyses different forms of marginalization and inequality. In one of the articles, the authors John Powell and Stephen Menendian explain the contemporary problem of ¨othering¨, the push back against people, groups, minorities, etc. different from others, as the following: ‘‘In a world beset by seemingly intractable and overwhelming challenges, virtually every global, national, and regional conflict is wrapped within or organized around one or more dimension of group-based difference. Othering undergirds territorial disputes, sectarian violence, military conflict, the spread of disease, hunger and food insecurity, and even climate change.’’ This problem also results in significant conflicts between Native Americans and non-native Americans as well as between different Native American tribes. In order to find an explanation for this problem of othering, the author Devon Mihesuah claims that ‘‘The various aspects of one’s life, including religion, work, warfare, social activities, education, eating and playing are not compartmentalized, and it’s not easy to explain or understand. [Native traditions] tend to be only superficially understood - or totally misunderstood - by non-Indians. Each tribe has its own traditions [...]. Like other aspects of Indians’ cultures, their [traditions] cannot be generalized.’’ (71)

This post will present to you three native American traditions which may have resulted in conflicts between native Americans and non-native Americans, as well as between different native tribes.

Native American Headdresses (War Bonnets)

Traditional Native American Headdresses – A Bohemian Fashion Accessory?

The early 2000’s, the time of ‘Denim on Denim on Denim’, ‘Livestrong Bracelets’ and ‘Tube Tops’ (Escobar), a time where Halloween was an event for which people dressed as something other than what they were (Reynoso). I remember back in 2002, when I was but a seven-year-old child, my parents took me and my baby sister to a children’s Halloween party. I was dressed as princess and I remember some of my friends being disguised as Native Americans: Colorful face paint, headdresses decorated with plastic feathers, and some kids were even carrying bow and arrow sets. Nowadays, the native American ‘fashion’ goes beyond Halloween by becoming a ‘‘year-round clothing trend for adults who are dressing up to resemble a race and culture of people they do not belong to.’’ (Trevor).

In 2103, the former Disney star and High School Musical actor Vanessa Hudgens caught attention at the infamous Coachella festival wearing a headpiece (Yapalater) decorated with bird feathers, making it look like an imitation of a traditional Native American war bonnet. Valerie Lemus and other festival goers from all over the world felt inspired and started wearing traditional American headgear. Lemus explained in an interview with CBC Canada in 2017 that she stopped at a shop in order to buy a ‘‘hat’’ before going straight to a festival, saying that ‘‘They were just beautiful, feathered hats. They had amazing patterns. And I bought one… 'cause I thought it fit my outfit perfectly.’’. It was later that Lemus realized that she bought an imitation of a traditional Native American headdress, also known as war bonnet.

Burning Bridges: The Truth about Traditional Native American Headdresses

Valerie Lemus continues the interview expressing her apologies, saying that she ‘‘had no idea’’ and that she ‘‘was being ignorant’’ for wearing a headpiece originating from the Native American community (CBC Canada). In order to address the misconceptions formed by non-native Americans about such headgear, the academic Leo Killsback explains the original meaning of war bonnets, as the following:

‘‘Throughout history, non-Indians have stereotypically associated war bonnets with official positions of leadership. […] Traditionally, [war bonnets] were worn only when going to war against worthy adversaries or in ceremony. In short, war bonnets were crowns to die in, not crowns of status.’’ (3)

The non-profit organization Native Languages of the Americas is dedicated to the survival of Native American Languages and culture. In their online article ‘‘Native American Headdresses: Facts for Kids’’, it is explained that nowadays, feathered war bonnets can be considered the best-known type of Native American headdresses, mostly worn by tribes such as the Blackfeet, Cheyenne, Crow, Plains Cree or Sioux, living in the Great Plains region. They continue by saying that in theses tribes, warriors were wearing the so-called trailer bonnets which were native headdresses made with single or double rows of eagle feathers and decorated with ermine skins and beads. The article concludes by explaining that, just like the trailer bonnet, other types, such as the halo war bonnet or the straight-up headdress, were made of feathers coming from the golden eagle whereas each feather had to be earned by the act of bravery.

In another scholarly essay entitled ‘‘From Birth Control to Eagle Feathers’’, the author Elizabeth Little shows the long and difficult procedure of getting eagle feathers. The Eagle Protection Act of 1940 prohibits the possession of bald and golden eagle parts. It is illegal to ‘‘take, possess, sell, purchase, barter, offer to sell […] at any time or in any manner, any bald eagle commonly known as the American eagle, or any golden eagle, alive or dead, or any part, nest, or egg thereof of the foregoing eagles.’’ (243). An exception is only made for Native American tribes which are federally recognised and given permission from the Fish and Wildlife Service. Once FWS approves, the applicant is forwarded to the National Eagle Repository which provides federally recognised tribes with eagle parts. The waiting list can vary, whereas a whole eagle takes up to 4 years of waiting time, and feathers about 6 months. Elizabeth Little’s essay makes the reader realise which enduring procedures the applicant has to follow and how much work actually lies behind getting the most important material for Native American feathered war bonnets.

Now, it seems to be self-explanatory why Native Americans may feel uncomfortable or even offended when outsiders are flaunting pieces of their culture. Non-native Americans are ‘‘using someone else’s culture as a way to look beautiful and eye-catching’’ (Rasborn). Especially when regarding festival goers and Halloween fans from all over the world who proudly wear feathered headdresses, the author Gabrielle Langkilde highlights that outsiders get to wear cool and ‘‘exotic’’ costumes that are admired by their entourage. However, they, unlike Native American people, never had to ‘‘suffer the or even understand, the histories of imperialistic thinking that categorized and continue to categorize [the Native Americans] as “savage” and “primitive” because of [their] traditions and cultural wear.’’ (Langkilde). The author closes her argument by accusing outsiders of the native American community of committing cultural appropriation, saying that ‘‘at the end of the night, after you’ve won a prize for “best” or even “most exotic” costume, you get to take it off and hang it back up in your closet. But [native Americans] can’t’’ (Langkilde)

These mentioned issues are just a few examples which lead to growing conflict between indigenous Americans and non-native Americans resulting in a feeling of rivalry between both cultures.

Thus, over the years, people with different cultural backgrounds actively started to speak out and to address the issue of cultural appropriation on platforms such as Twitter, Instagram, newspapers or podcasts since the information gets easily spread all over the world. Also, several campaigns, such as #DearNonNatives or #MyCultureIsNotACostume, were released on social media, especially on Twitter and Instagram where especially younger indigenous people are addressing several issues that they want Non-Native people to know. For instance, the Oneida Nation Councilman Brandon Stevens (@yellowbird_4) tweeted in August 2015 ‘‘dear non-natives, cultural appropriation is when you take all beautiful aspects of our culture w/o the history and pain associated with them.’’. In an interview with the radio network Voice of America, Tristan Ahstone, who is working to improve mainstream media coverage of Native American communities and who himself is a member of the Oklahoma Kiowa Tribe, addresses the effectiveness of such campaigns and expresses that ‘‘these folks on Twitter and other social media outlets who are trying to have their voices heard are, if nothing else, looking to supplement the American education system, which has done absolutely nothing to inform citizens about indigenous people’’, blaming education for the growing conflicts between Native Americans and non-native Americans and considering modern technologies as a method to make people aware of these issues.

(Re)Building Bridges: Celebration instead of Appropriation

In order to sooth the increasing tension between both cultures and to shed a little bit of hope on their relationship, the blogger and member of the Métis, Chelsea Vowel, published an open letter to non-natives wearing headdresses. She encourages non-indigenous people to educate themselves more about her culture before admiring it. She also highlights that nobody needs to be an expert in Native American culture to access aspects of it, but she invites everybody to ask someone from that culture when questions or uncertainties arise. She assures that

‘‘It’s okay to make mistakes. Maybe you had no idea about any of this stuff. The classiest thing you can do is admit you didn’t know, and maybe even apologise if you find you were doing something disrespectful. A simple acknowledgement of the situation is pure gold, in my opinion. It diffuses tension and makes people feel that they have been heard, respected, and understood.’’

Crossing Bridges: Learning and Growing

People need to start educating themselves about different cultures in order to get rid of the ever-growing conflicts and tensions between Native American people and non-native Americans, because then, as Chelsea Vowel also said in her blog post, ‘‘all the nasty disrespectful stereotyping and denigration of restricted symbols can be avoided, while still allowing you to be decked out in beautiful native-created fashion.’’

The Role of Women in the Cherokee Nation

In most societies, the role of women was insignificant. Women were commonly regarded as "savages", and according to Christian teachings, as sinners. Nevertheless, women sacrificed their lives, principles and interests helping society to survive, grow spiritually and materially.

The bravery, intelligence and talent of the Cherokee women exceeded expectations. They worked to solve the fundamental existential problems of the tribe. In the Cherokee Nation, women were not just mothers and wives; they were the representation of strong female characters recognized as great warriors, farmers and craftswomen (Rose). Women were responsible for building homes, as well as making and amending clothes and participating in hunting together with men (ibid).

In other words, Cherokee women were as important as men. They were skilled in making weapons out of animal bones for the tribe (Minor, 111). There were not only "medicine men" in the tribe, but also "medicine women." (ibid). Native Americans believed that women were empowered to connect with the spiritual world and were capable of heal people from different diseases (“Native American Women”). Many of them were incredibly skilled at painting, sewing and decorating, at pottery and creating jewelry, which is the great representation of their culture (ibid). The major priorities of healthiness of relationships and gender equality were the core of this nation. Despite harsh political, economic conditions, respected each other, like in modern society.

However, the Cherokee Nation was forced to leave their territories, land and houses during “The Trial of Tears” in 1831. Over 60,000 Native Americans were relocated from the South East of United States to the West of Mississippi River. The US government inhumanely transferred the Native American tribes to desert areas, where it was not possible to grow any kind of plants (Schulz, et al. 637).

In the nineteenth century, during the “The Trail of Tears”, women lost many of their rights. In the Native American society, the US government wanted to marginalize women of their rights. However, Cherokee women were involved in the social life and tried to save their culture and traditions, despite limited possibilities. Not only US government, but also the Civil War had a huge impact on the reconstruction of women and male role in the Native American society.

One of the prominent figures for the Cherokee`s is Nancy Ward. She was born in 1738 in Chota - called "mother town" of Cherokees (NYC historical society). The Council and people of Cherokee named her as “Beloved Woman”, War Woman “,”White Rose” or “Wild Rose”. Her life is excellently described in the book “Narrative of Nancy, a Cherokee Women" (Myles, 59).

Ward played an important diplomatic role in negotiating and preventing conflicts between "whites" and Native Americans. Although, her aim was to make peace between two sides. Her personal life became a subject of public controversy, when she briefly married a white man named Bryant Ward in 1755. Nevertheless, in 1776, she was the first and only female whom was allowed to participate in Cherokee General Council as a head of Cherokee Women's Council. This was unprecedented and hardly believable even for "white" women to be able to speak and have a voice of all women of the nation: (Wilson Herring)

"You know that women are always looked upon as nothing, but we are your mothers; you are our sons. OUR CRY IS ALL FOR PEACE; let it continue. This peace must last forever. Let your women hear our words." (Alderman, 65).

She believed that peace would come only if Indians and "whites" saw themselves not as enemies, but as part of one nation. In her opinion, it is possible to achieve peace between these two nations only if women from both sides would take actions against violence." (ibid)

Another prominent female figure is a self-taught photographer, Jennie Ross Cobb. She was born in 1881 in Tahlequah, Indian Territory. Ross was great-granddaughter of Cherokee Principal Chief John Ross (1828-1866), representative of Ross dynasty of Cherokee nation (Burnett, 2). Apart from that, she was well known as, a first female photographer, who started to depict the Cherokee Nation life in her creations in the late 19th century. Her photographs were used by the Oklahoma Historical Society in order to renew Hunter`s Home, today the Museum of George M. Murrell. She was a schoolteacher in the village of Christie, Tahlequah. Her early works are the pictures of students in Robert L. Owen's school (Strathman, 138). In her photographs, her fellow classmates were depicted, wearing clothes for special occasions and going down the seminary street. She became the first indigenous woman, who was rewarded for her artistic skills who showed the beauty, culture and traditions of Cherokee tribe through her Kodak camera (McDonnell).

Cherokee Women in Contemporary History

The First Female Leader in Modern History

In 1985 , Wilma Mankiller (1945-2010) became the first women leader in modern history who led the Cherokee Nation. It was not easy to govern a people, who are not accepted as a part of the one nation they live in (Wallis). However, she managed to improve the situation of her people. For instance, she has played a significant role in providing education and better health care to ingenious people (ibid).

In 1994, Mankiller participated in a meeting with Indian and Alaska Native tribal leaders at the White House. As President Clinton said Federal Government should "dramatically improve" the relationship with Native Americans:

"I say to the leaders of the first Americans, the American Indian and Alaska natives welcome to the White House. Welcome home." (Devroy and Kenworthy).

As president Clinton suggested, the American people should respect language, culture, traditions of Cherokees and make sure they are treated equal to “white” Americans (ibid).

Public Discussions about Cherokee Heritage

There have been times when it has been deemed, shameful to have aboriginal heritage. Today it has become an opportunity for politicians and celebrities to make themselves more popular and beloved. Many of them claim that they are fully or partly of Cherokee descent. Today it is a tendency to show an empathy toward Native American people.

For example, it became a scandal when a senator and presidential candidate Elisabeth Warren made it official, and informed the media about her heritage. In February, she asked forgiveness to the Cherokee Nation leaders who had judged her because of her announcement being part of Cherokee. “I was wrong to have identified as a Native American, and, without qualification or excuse, I apologize,” she wrote (Elmahrek). President Trump also blamed her in the falsification of facts and named her “Pocahontas”. However, Warren did not negatively answered Trumps sarcastic expression; on the contrary, she considered the name has positive connotation (Scher). Joseph M. Pierce, 36, a Cherokee Nation resident who observed Ms. Warrens speech claimed that Ms. Warren had violated and disrespected tribal rights “by taking into her own hands the ability to determine who is and who is not Cherokee.”(Kaplan). Although, Deb Haaland, who happened to be one of the Native Americans women in congress, had on opposing view and advocated Ms. Warren. She said: “I say that every time they ask about Elizabeth’s family instead of the issues of vital importance to Indian Country, they feed the president’s racism,” “Elizabeth knows she will be attacked, but she’s here to be an unwavering partner in our struggle because that is what a leader does.” She also talked about Trumps reaction about Ms. Warren, “I say the president who worships Andrew Jackson, who coddles white supremacists and defends Vladimir Putin, who cages children and freely admitted to assaulting women, is no match for a woman with a plan.” (ibid).

Another representative of the Cherokee Nation is Cherilyn Sarkisian, her father was an American-Armenian truck driver, and her mother Georgia Holt, was a model and actress who had Irish, English, German and Cherokee root. (EHNIC). She wears traditional tribal clothing and makes accents on her individuality. Her early 70s music videos "Half Breed" and "Gypsies, Tramps & Thieves" celebrates her ethnic identity. The song narrates the story of a girl who was born in a travelling trailer, whose childhood was far from a perfect. Her mother danced for the male audience to feed the family. She eventually meets a sixteen-years-old boy and takes a long trip with him into the unknown, better anywhere than at home where there was nothing but poverty (Breihan).

In conclusion, women all over the world have gone through many difficulties. The path has been incredibly hurtful and full of travails. Women struggled to gain the rights in order not to be treated as "savages", but as equal members of the society. Throughout the nineteenth century, women lost much of their rights during "The Trail of Tears." The US government wanted to diminish women of their rights within the Native American community. Despite the harsh conditions, women have managed to preserve and develop their people's lives. Outstanding persons as Ward, who claimed that peace would come only if Indians and "whites" saw themselves not as enemies, but as part of a common nation. Moreover, the harmony between these two nations could be achieved, if women on both sides take action against aggression.

In the past, different stakeholders have made some tremendous effort to promote a peaceful coexistence of the “white” and Native Americans. For example, the first Cherokee chief, Willma Mankiller, sought to negotiate with the U.S. government to incorporate Native Americans into social life. Also, an artist and photographer Jennie Ross, have used her incredible photographs, as a symbol to portal the talent of Native American women. Today, both the U.S. and Native American tribes are seeking to compromise and take action against poverty and inequality. However, there is still a lot of racism amongst the people.

Whaling Conflict with Native Americans

It was July when a Makah fisherman managed to accidentally catch a whale with his net. The entanglement had reportedly recurred at least five times in the last five years. On each occasion, however, the federal government either sought to prosecute the hunting of endangered species or appropriated the whale (Bock; Tizon in Erikson 556). But this time the Makah were allowed to keep the whale. Ironically, only two months prior to the "accidental whale," the Makah Tribe had revealed its intention to resume hunting the grey whale, due to the recent removal of this category from the endangered species list (Erikson 556). Four years later, particularly on the fall of that year, the Makah shocked the world when they entangled a juvenile grey whale in Nea Bay, Washington (Cantzler 485). Hunt exclusion was at that time inapplicable to Makah as they stopped whaling 75 years ago following the depletion of grey whale population to near extinction by Russian and European whalers (Cantzler 485).This announcement of a whale catch angered all anti-whaling activists internationally calling to stop whaling (Erikson 556). However, pro-whaling activists supported the Tribes rights, asserting the Makah’s cultural rights be maintained (Jasper and Nelkin in Canzler). In this article, I will explore the pro- and anti-discourse of the whaling conflict through some journal articles, newspapers, and books.

Anti-whaling activists protest is based originally not only on environmental protection, but also on the fact that whales are smart animals (Kim 206) and they deserve to survive and protection from overfishing. By tolerating overfishing and granting exceptions on merit of cultural autonomy (Canzler 502), whaling will become an international phenomena and in a matters of years, whales will be fully depleted, thereby undermining the global ecosystem. One of the main objections to Makah restoration of their whaling tradition is based on the conviction that the Makah people are opening “Pandora’s box” on commercial whaling (Watson in Erikson 562). The Sea Shepherd Society, perhaps the most visible opponent to Makah whaling, predicts that Makah Tribe is pursuing a hidden agenda: selling the whale meat internationally (Watson in Erikson 560-562). Campaigners also argue that whales bring significant benefits to ecosystem quoting research stressing that whales contribute to the reduction of carbon dioxide levels, which aggravate the problem of global warming, in the atmosphere (Eligon). Activists in this regard are right as whales, regardless of their category, constitute an integral aspect of the ecosystem. Should Makah be granted an exception to hunt, it would set a precedent for others seeking to hunt, which according to activists will lead to shake the whole ecosystem.

On the basis of the aforementioned data, however, anti-whaling activist have fought whaling in a variety of ways. They showed no regard to Makkah’s traditions by connecting their obsolete ancestral practices in our modern world, as they claim, to savagism. One of such sentiment was quoted in a letter to the Times of London:

What would happen if the peoples of every nation were licensed to practice their ancestral habits? Danes would take boat trips to Scotland to rape and pillage. Londoners would create traffic havoc by driving sheep across Tower Bridge. And President Clinton would be expected to exercise droit de seigneur over all internees. The world would mill in a state of social tumult similar to that which will be seen in the microcosm next month when, in an extreme northwestern outpost of the United States, members of the Makah nation take to the seas fora whaling expedition amid flotillas of irate conservationists. (Anonymous in Canzler 504)

Additionally, they framed the debate to serve their own purposes. Some depicted whales as superior to the mankind. For example, an opponent of the Makah whale hunt, computer expert Roedy Green, wrote this on his Website: ‘Killing a whale is a more serious sin than killing a human because whales are superior beings to us. They have brains much larger than ours. They are simply better creatures. [...] Killing whales is more barbaric than cannibalism.’ (in Ginkel 77). The accusations of cannibalism are an extreme instance of slander towards Makah Tribe. Anti-whaling activists have also purposely slurred the tribe’s traditions of whaling as a major evil practice to deliver a strong message to all whalers.

However, an annual catch of five to six whales will neither endanger vulnerable whale populations as IWC International Whaling Commission had banned whaling twenty five years prior to the first whale entanglement by Makah, meaning they exist at that point in abundance in oceans to some extent, nor can such a tiny volume be at a commercial scale. The President of International World Conservation Trust communicated his message in the following letter to the editor:

Under the so-called “animal rights” approach, one species––or even one specimen of a species––is targeted to be “saved.” Little to no regard is paid to the consequences of such a myopic focus. Too many of one species inevitably results in a world out of balance. Too many whales in general place an unsurvivable strain on the oceans’ fish resources. . . . We are nature’s protectors and managers. We are the keepers of nature’s balance. Three cheers for the Makah and other whale-consuming people. (Lapointe in Canzler 504)

Furthermore, the Makah tribe is entitled to pursue their old tradition regardless of the whaling ban imposed by the international community. This because the depletion of whales to extinction is to be blamed on European, Japanese, Russian and American fleets which brought down whale populations to the extinction degree, and the Makahs’ attempt to recuperate their ancestors’ old tradition is in no way a major catalyst for others to resume whaling out of cultural necessity, as anti-whaling activists put it (”Makah Whaling”).

Proponents of Makah’s right to pursue hunting claim that it is unjust to deprive them of one aspect of their own culture; they asserted this point under the Principles of Environmental Justice in which all people are to be treated equally and are free from discrimination in environmental making policy and enforcement (Canzler 502, 503). They also supported the Makah’s attempt for autonomy in which only tribe members can make important decisions for the tribe’s internal affairs, independent of federal government intervention. This rhetoric was often brought up in the journal articles and letters covering the topic of tribal sovereignty:

The issue is not over preservation of the whales. The issue is over the right of native people to maintain autonomy and sovereignty. The killing of the whale may or may not be misguided. This is a decision that the Makah have a right to make. (in Cantzler 502)

Makah whaling acts reflect Makah cultural identity, which anti-whaling activists attempt to distort. In other words, whaling for Makah Tribe members is an identity rather than a practice. Miller demonstrate this concept:

The determination of the Makah Tribe to pursue its ancient whaling custom is an excellent example of a distinct group of people and a separate political state defining its culture and exercising cultural self-determination by practicing that culture according to its traditions . . . . It is important to the Makah to stay separate and distinguishable from the Anglo-American society that tried so hard to destroy Makah culture and to assimilate its people into the American “melting pot.” The Makah have shown that they will fight to keep their own “personality” as a nation, race, and people and will teach this culture to their children. (D’Costa 87)

Overall, on the side of moralistic rhetoric, anti-whaling activists employed moralistic language, and were also sharply critical of whaling, considering it savage and barbaric as Catherine Pruett put it in one of her comments to KING 5. Activist also warned that condoning Makah’s whaling practices will open the door to the expansion of illegal whaling operations by Japan, Norway and Iceland, which does contribute to the decline in already unstable whale population (Kim 232), However, they failed to acknowledge that the Makah were not responsible for the deterioration of whaling population, which was already depleted by the others. On the other side, the Makah have the right to pursue whaling, maintain their historical tradition, and restore their identity and autonomy even though anti-whaling campaigners disapprove whaling. Obviously, an annual tiny catch of five to six whales out of the population of approximately 90,000 (“Whale”) will neither wreak havoc in world oceans, nor bring whales to extinction.

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