The "Model Minority"
Asian American Stereotypes
What are positive/negative stereotypes, where do they come from, and how are they perpetuated?
Jaakko Lethonen defines stereotypes as generalizations made by people of one group (in-group) about members/individuals of another collective, presuming certain behaviour, values and traits about another person or an out-group. Scholars found that stereotypes erase differences between the individual members of the out-group. Consequently, they lead to over-simplification. One possible explanation for their existence is that stereotyping is an evolutionary development that supposedly relieves the brain's capacity while dealing with an overflow of new information. Thus, according to Gordon W. Allport, stereotypes aid as a coping mechanism to deal with the complexity of reality, which is too detailed to receive an accurate impression of every individual group member.
A similar explanation is given by Donovan A. McFarlane, who suggests that stereotyping is caused by the uncertainty about the Other, which manifests itself in a generalization of presumed or experienced characteristics to cover the missing information. Alleged characteristics of any group are often perpetuated or reinforced by media like film and social media; thus, these forms of communication are powerful tools for fostering, altering, and breaking with stereotypes. Therefore, in academia, media is often used to analyze stereotypes about certain groups.
Moreover, scholars such as Alexander M. Czopp et al. and Aaron C. Kay et al. distinguish between positive and negative stereotypes. Positive stereotypes highlight a collective's presumed characteristics, commonly understood as pleasant, favourable, and advantageous. They may enhance the superiority or dominance of the positively stereotyped group. Negative stereotyping has the opposite effect; it fosters negative prejudice about a group and therefore nourishes racism and discrimination against this group.
Jaakko Lethonen attempts to answer the question of whether stereotypes are per se harmful or harmless; "As such, stereotypes are not bad or good, but they can influence intercultural interactions in different ways: an observer tends to favour information which is consistent with existing expectations, and tends to ignore, or reject information which is inconsistent with those stereotypes.".
Donovan A. McFarlane argues that the intention behind the stereotype is decisive for the harm that could be inflicted. If they were used to fill knowledge gaps and bring order into the perceptive system, they would be useful for the stereotyping person. Still, if they were used to do harm or from narrow-mindedness, for example, for ethnocentric reasons or to foster inequality and discrimination, they are considered dangerous. Thus, Ariel Moniz and Donovan A. McFarlane argue that whether a stereotype's nature is 'good' or 'bad' as intended by the person who is stereotyping, it is always an undesirable overgeneralization of the stereotyped party; hence it should be treated with caution and reflection. Jaakko Lethonen, as well as Szu-Hsien Chang and Brian H. Kleiner state that due to the bilateral nature of these prejudices, they are not only a mere description of a group, but they also prescribe expectations towards this group, which could lead to a damaging self-fulfilling prophecy.
The Development of Asian American Stereotypes: From "Yellow Peril" to "Model Minority" (to "Yellow Peril" again?)
Asian Americans are American citizens who identify with their Asian heritage but were born in the United States (see the aritcle "Asian American Identity" for more). Today this group is often referred to as the ‘Model Minority', denoting a collection of positive stereotypes assigned to this ethnicity. Historically however, Asian Americans have not always been seen in a positive light, which scholars like Doboo Shim and Ellen D. Wu have made the subject of their research: From the 1850s to the 1920s, this group was stigmatized as the 'Yellow Peril' due to the Asian immigrants, who came to the USA (mainly California) during the Gold Rush to fill gaps in the labour market. Over the years, these immigrants established businesses that came to be seen as a threat to white American workers and farmers during the Great Depression.
During those times, the Chinese were often blamed for social problems they were not responsible for. The media promoted an irrational fear of Asian immigrants outnumbering and overtaking white civilization. Alexander M. Czopp found that Asian immigrants were stereotyped as dirty, crude, and lazy back then, whereas today, this group is more likely to be stereotyped as intelligent, diligent, and competitive. This raises the question of how this minority happened to get rid of the negative stereotypes about them, let alone becoming the 'colour of success' as Wu labels Asian Americans in her article from 2017.
Czopp et al. state that the evolution of stereotypes about Asian Americans from negative towards more positive connotations coincided with the improvement of this minorities’ socioeconomic status. However, the development from “Yellow Peril” to “Model Minority” was not this plain and simple, as indicated by the duration of almost a century.
Due to the Immigration Act of 1924, which stopped the further mass influx from East Asian countries, the fear of being outnumbered by Asian immigrants declined. With this, the image of Asian Americans began to change for the better. Before 1940 the cultural differences, for example, in cuisine, were perceived to be significant, and for a long time, Asian Americans were seen as the 'unassimilable Other' by white Americans. This measure shows the institutionalized discrimination against immigrants from Asian countries. During the Second World War, civil rights of over 120,000 Japanese Americans were violated as they were despatched into concentration camps, which could be seen as a backlash but also another example of institutionalized discrimination.
The image of Asian Americans then further changed between the 1940s and 1950s when the economic and political developments caused by the Second World War led to an awareness of fascism and exclusion. It was also advantageous that Asian Americans were no longer perceived as unassimilable due to their domestic and educational values and harmonious predisposition. As their behaviour and self-representations of gender roles and sexuality corresponded with that of the white middle class, Asian Americans rose in social status. Although they were seen as assimilable then, they were still othered.
In the 1960s, the term Model Minority for Chinese and Japanese immigrants was coined, not only due to their socioeconomic rise and cultural Whitening but also as a means of justification that the socioeconomic failure of African Americans and Latinx was to blame only on themselves. Hence, the term Model Minority was a tool to promote more racial discrimination and prejudice against other minorities and is not necessarily a result of the positive reassessment of Asian Americans by the dominant white American population. Yao Li and Harvey L. Nicholson found that since the 1960s, Asian Americans have been referred to as the Model Minority and are still stereotyped mainly positively. Their assimilation behaviour even includes forms of so-called social whitening, including practices like anglicizing their names. However, scholarship is divided on, whether they are soon to be fully integrated into the dominant white group or whether remaining or reoccurring negative stereotypes will make them 'forever foreigners' despite their social mobility (see article on "History" for more detail).
Recent events like the Covid-19 pandemic have been blamed on people of Asian heritage. The last part of this website investigates whether or not the good reputation of this minority could be tarnished by the outbreak of the virus in Wuhan. However, first there will be an evaluation of the effects caused by stereotypes in the domestic sphere, as well as in work and educational related areas.
Asian American Stereotypes in the Domestic Sphere
Asian Americans are the model minority in the US as they are regarded as the most successful minority in terms of reaching for high academic achievement and living a dutiful and down-to-earth life closest to the 'American way'. Therefore, Asian American families are stereotypically pictured as the ideal neoconservative subject, traditional, family-oriented, and hardworking, as Stacy Lee defines them in her book titled Unraveling the "Model Minority" Stereotype: Listening to Asian American Youth in which she tries to unravel the stereotype of the model minority.
However, multiple scholars suggest that the stereotypical image of Asian American family dynamics and their parenting style cannot be universally applied, as the Asian American community is highly diverse and constantly changing over time. Moreover, even though some stereotypes about the construct of the Asian American family depict reality, some persistent and well-known stereotypes have been proven wrong. Thus, on closer inspection, many stereotypes linked to Asian Americans are found to apply to multiple minorities and Americans as well, therefore questioning those stereotypes as a whole. Further, the term model minority applied to the Asian American family construct was found to be harmful as it puts a lot of pressure on Asian American families and might even impede successful integration and cross-cultural understanding.
The Asian American community is connected to many stereotypes, and especially their family structure and parenting style are linked to deeply rooted and widely believed stereotypes. The construct of the Asian American family stereotypically consists of the hardworking patriarchal father, the dutiful mother who lives solely to guide her children's education and the obedient children who do well in school, serving the rhetoric of traditional family values, as Lee describes it.
In popular culture, the Asian parenting style is often referred to as tiger parenting and has made its way into empirical pedagogy. The topic caught public awareness when US-born author Amy Chua published her autobiographical book Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother in 2011, where she explained the tiger parenting style and its benefits for raising successful children. She depicts Asian parents as unemotional, cold-hearted and suppressive. She proclaims that children need to be pushed to succeed at any cost, which entails depriving them of their social life and forbidding social activities with peers. Mothers need to be authoritarian and highly controlling. They should "assume strength, not fragility" and "believe that their kids owe them anything", in Chua's words. Further, Chua claims that her tiger parenting style is more effective, as it does not focus on developing and enhancing children's self-esteem as American parenting styles do.
Unsurprisingly, her highly controversial theses sparked public debates and outrage about Asian parenting styles as they feed into the stereotypical depiction of the Asian American parenting style. Though her book damaged the depiction of Asian Americans, it also inspired many studies on the alleged harsh Asian American parenting style. In the past, the Asian parenting style has been found to be more authoritarian, more controlling and less affectionate compared to Western parenting. However, those findings are mainly based on Chinese American families and cannot be seen as representative of the diverse Asian American community. Further, the studies claiming to define Asian parenting styles predominately focus on children's educational achievements and do not consider psychological and social dimensions.
Modern studies trying to define Asian and Asian American parenting styles and their effect on children can empirically support the existence of Chua's notion of tiger parents. However, the research found tiger parents to be a minority group among Asian-heritage parents, and further, the Chinese-heritage parents, which are predominantly linked to tiger parenting, to be supportive and attentive towards their children and interested in their emotional well-being which can be assessed in the longitudinal study by Kim et al. from 2013. Further, challenging the stereotype of Asian parents who only care about their children's academic success, an international study by Way et al. from 2013 found Asian parents to be sincerely interested in their children's emotional development, trying to turn them into self-sufficient, happy, emotionally and socially well-adjusted adults.
Though Asian American parents are depicted as overly strict, especially the controversial tiger parents, their image as the model minority, especially in connection to the outstanding academic success of Asian American children, is not flawed, and their parenting style appears to be worthwhile. However, even the seemingly positive stereotypes about Asian American parents and their family structure, placing the father as the head of the family, and the mother as submissive and caring for the well-behaved obedient children, can be deemed harmful as they force Asian Americans into roles they may not identify with. Based on Associate Professor Yoonsun Choi's research on Asian American families, "17 Asian American subgroups with distinct histories, languages, religious affiliations, and other markers of culture" can be identified, highlighting how diverse the Asian American community is in the US. Her research, which highlights the diversity of the Asian American community, questions the foundation of the stereotypes directed at Asian American families, as the sheer number of subgroups forbids generalities in parenting style and family construction. The stereotypical image of the "perfect" Asian American family is often compared and juxtaposed to the stereotypical dysfunctional black family headed by a single black mother on welfare, as Lee explains, which further highlights why the putative positive stereotypes are problematic as they often function to degrade other minorities.
In conclusion, Asian American parents appear to employ parenting practices and values which differ from the American parenting style; however, this cannot be generalized. Different empirical studies found Asian American parenting styles similar or identical to American parenting styles. Further, the Asian American community was found to be very diverse, not only concerning parenting styles and family structures. The prominent stereotypes about Asian Americans, as found in popular literature like Amy Chua's book or detected in American perceptions in empirical studies, suggest that Asian American families are perceived as a unity. Therefore, the diverse composition of the Asian American community needs to be acknowledged and emphasized further to break down family and parenting-related stereotypes.
Asian American Stereotypes in Education and Work
(see article on "Asian Americans in the Education System" for a detailed analysis)
Besides family and parenting-related stereotypes, there are lots of education-related stereotypes about Asian American students. Asian Americans are perceived as academic super-stars because they work hard, come from cultures that believe in the value of education and are somewhat inherently more intelligent than other minorities (for more details on this, see the education article). According to Zhao and Wei (2009) Asian Americans are overrepresented in National Merit Scholarships, Arts Recognition and Talent Search scholars and in U.S. Presidential Scholarships. Moreover, they are overrepresented at America’s most prestigious universities as 50% of the freshmen at the University of California at Berkeley are Asian Americans. Furthermore, they tend to achieve higher scores on the ACT (American College Test), especially in math. Thus, Asian Americans are depicted as a model minority. The myth about Asian Americans as the model minority and their perceived collective success is pervasive and bears many consequences. It masks problems that Asian Americans struggle with within the educational system and tends to overlook students that do not fulfil the stereotypes that the perception of a model minority carries.
According to a study by Trytten and Walden (2012), there are many facets to the model minority stereotype. As already mentioned, Asian Americans are perceived as inherently smarter than other racial groups, especially in mathematics and science. Secondly, it is assumed that Asian Americans have a very good work ethic because they willingly work harder and are overachieving students. Thirdly, it is claimed that they have high goals and desire monetary stability and upward mobility. Consequently, there is the assumption that Asian Americans see education as the path to success and seek educational and economic prestige while they prefer to study at elite institutions. These statements are supported by several studies and interviews. One interview conducted by Stacey Lee (1994) with an Asian American student named Xuan Nguyen shows that model minority stereotypes have a severe impact on students’ self-worth. In the interview he stated:
“I used to go into classes, and if you don't do that well in math or science, the teacher is like, "What are you? Some kind of mutant Asian? You don't do well in math...." You see, I'm not that good in math. I also find that a lot of my friends become upset if they're not good students ... I don't think it's right for them to have to feel defensive. And for people who are doing well, it's just like, "Oh, they (Asians) didn't have to work for it ... They're just made that way.” (Lee, 1994)
Hence, not only high but also low-achieving Asian American students experience stress and anxiety while trying to uphold the expectations of the model minority stereotype. In addition, a study by Cheryan and Bodenhausen (2000) revealed that Asian students performed lower in academic tests when they were reminded of the model minority stereotype. The fear of not living up to the expectations set by the model minority stereotype decreases performance and prevents students from fully demonstrating their abilities. Also, the fact that Asian Americans are commonly treated as a homogenous group, results in injustice and major pressure among students. Yee’s report on persisting misperceptions supports the thesis that there is a perceptual homogeneity carrying a negative effect on their awareness of identity and self-worth. The model minority stereotype is therefore threatening because it not only tells Asian Americans how to behave or how to be, but it also diminishes their self-worth as well as their own judgement regarding their performance.
Besides, another study by Golden (2006) has proven that institutions have higher expectations of Asian Americans than of white students because colleges confirmed that they would have not rejected some of their applicants if they were of any other ethnic group or minority. Thus, according to Golden (2006) it is stereotyping itself that is dangerous to students and not the positive or negative valence it assumes. The model minority stereotype assumes that only a genius Asian American is a good Asian American student which is a highly debilitating expectation to hold on.
Furthermore, according to Stacey Lee Asian Americans are perceived as “trouble-free students” that do not complain about anything and are free from psychological and social problems. On the contrary, a study by Cornell (2004) stated that Asian Americans are more likely to report depression than any other minority. Moreover, they are more likely to report feelings of hopelessness and stress. In fact, their academic excellence masks their psychological problems and thus it is important to acknowledge and address these problems. Lee implies that staff members should be educated on how to meet Asian Americans' psychological and educational needs by creating more awareness on this matter. Furthermore, Zhao (2007) stated that even though Americans admire Asian education policies and see these nations as a model of excellent education, also the negative aspects of Asian education should be considered.
In conclusion, it can be stated that the “Asian American Model Minority” is a poor label as there are many subgroups that differ drastically in their backgrounds. Not every Asian country has the same political system or economic situation, hence their ethics and attitudes are different. Furthermore, some Asian American students are second and third-generation Americans while others may be refugees that immigrated to the U.S. which holds a significant impact on their educational performance. To conclude, the Asian American emphasis on academic achievement seems to be either the will of individual students and their parents or a choice imposed by their social environments. Either way, the research suggests that Asian American's academic excellence is really a matter of "choice," not a matter of genetic determination. More precisely, according to Zhao and Wei, the term model minority is an overgeneralization of the academic and economic achievement of Chinese, Japanese and Korean Americans. Unfortunately, the U.S. Department of Education, along with other major institutions, usually groups all Asian American students in their statistics, even though the U.S. census recognizes over two dozen separate Asian and Pacific Island groups in the U.S. Thus, education policies should not treat all Asian American students as a homogenous group and find a system that reflects differences within the Asian American population. Lastly, it has to be considered that racial stereotypes, even if connoted as positive, cause harm to both Asian and other students. Identity goes beyond ethnicity.
Development of Stereotypes since the Covid-19 Pandemic
Despite the development and the spread of awareness among people in the 21st century, unfortunately, stereotypes have not stopped even in modern times. Asian Americans have been regularly scapegoated during the COVID-19 pandemic. Generally, fears of COVID-19 and death lead to the need to put blame on someone or a place and associate it with social stigma. The World Health Organization defines social stigma as "the negative association between a person or group of people who share certain characteristics and a specific disease". Which could lead people to be discriminated against or stereotyped due to a perceived link with a disease. This can also negatively affect people who share characteristics with this group. This is what we have witnessed during COVID-19 outbreak, which has caused negative behavior towards Asian minority in America. So the question that arises is what led people to put blame on Asian American in causing COVID-19.
There are many reasons behind blaming Asian American and stigmatizing them during Covid 19; racial prejudice, pandemic-related fear, media and news factors, and considering that Asian American are foreigners. First racial prejudice against Asian Americans is most associated with beliefs that they are responsible for causing and spreading the virus. Hyunyi Cho, professor of communication at The Ohio State University, as quoted in Grabmeier's article from 2020 said “It was striking that this general prejudice against Asian Americans appeared to play a powerful role in the stigmatization of this group in the specific context of COVID-19.” Grabmeier (2020) pointed out that people who stigmatize Asian Americans argue that the virus was first identified in Wuhan, a Chinese province, which they use as evidence to stigmatize Asians and link the virus with them. Wenbo Li, doctoral candidate in communication at Ohio State, as quoted in Grabmeier's article stated that stereotypical racial beliefs which people already had about Asians played a huge role in predicting stigmatization.
UNICEF suggested that the fear of COVID-19 tends to be associated with Asians due to the fact that this particular disease emerged in China. It is a new disease and because a lot was still unknown about it, it can be said that it is a natural and understandable thing that people are often afraid of the unknown, which led people to associate this fear with other people. Which unfortunately makes the UNICEF worry that Asians may be particularly exposed to growing racial stereotypes by those who fear COVID-19 the most. Stefan and Stefan from 1993, 1996, 2000 as quoted in Croucher's article from 2020, they developed the integrated threat theory (ITT) which includes four types of threats that explain negative attitudes toward minority groups: realistic threats, symbolic threats, intergroup anxiety, and negative stereotypes. According to the ITT, Stefan and Stefan (2000) as quoted in Crocher's same article from 2020, they stated that prejudice and discrimination are caused by the feeling of threat and fear. Furthermore, the theory claims in the same article that there is no need for a real threat, however the perception of the threat can lead to negative attitudes by dominant cultural groups to express prejudice and hatred towards a minority group.
An important factor is from where people receive the news. First, Noel's article from 2020 suggests that media coverage has been associated with helping to increase the level of hatred and racism towards Asians. For example, as it has been claimed by Rogers et al. in 2020, the former President of the United States of America Donald Trump deliberately referred to the Coronavirus as the "Chinese virus" and said that this is not racist at all. However, later he repeated thar in two tweets and he clearly referred again to it as "Chinese virus". When he was asked about using this term he insisted he was simply referring to the fact that the virus was first discovered in China. According to Dhanani and Franz (2021) negative attitudes toward Asian people were reported more among supporters of Donald Trump. So when a president speaks in this way and he is considered an influential figure who has a large audience, then this definitely helps increase the hatred for Asians, which again links the issue to a social stigma.
Social media, on the other hand, has a great influence on people. According to Grabmeier's Article from 2020, people who receive news from social media are more likely to blame Asians for the virus than people who get news from CNN. Davidson and Farquhar (2020) claim that prejudice is often expressed in social media. Chroucher's article from 2020 quoted Mcquire claim from 2020 that during the Covid-19 pandemic people showed prejudice, stereotypes, and other forms of negative emotions on social media platforms towards Asian Americans. Davidson and Farquhar from 2020 suggested that the presence of many social media platforms increasingly influences the quantity and quality of messages that are disseminated, for example, the biased messages that are disseminated through social media.
Another impostant reason, as illustrated by Daley et al from 2022, is that white Americans particularly tend to view Asians as foreigners and lacking “Americanness.”. So they also said that the "perpetual foreigner” stereotype increased the blame for the pandemic which was directed toward China. Daley et al. (2022) claim that the stereotype of Asians being foreign is what increases the blame for the virus associated with China, and is linked to the increase in "foreignness" rates of Asians. So this bias has an effect on the lives of people who are culturally considered "un-American."
In conclusion, several factors helped blame Asians and Asian Americans for the Coronavirus. First, the discovery of the virus was in Wuhan, China, which made people associate it with Asians. Second, because the virus is new and caused fear and anxiety among people, it made them need to blame someone or a place and the Asians were a scapegoat for that. Third, of course, social media and news in general played a major role in spreading many negative and biased ideas. Social media often helps spread stereotypes and reinforces prejudice. Also the ingrained notion that Asians are "perpetual foreigner" made people associate this virus with them and blame them for spreading it. In sum, the findings of our sample show that Asian Americans have suffered and continue to experience different stereotypes which lead to multiple forms of racism. Additionally, we were able to look at some of these stereotypes in different fields; historical development of Asian Americans stereotypes, stereotypes in the domestic sphere, in the educational domain and recently during Covid-19. We also looked at some causes of stereotypes, and the negative effects they can have on Asian Americans, which continues even in the current time of the pandemic. Since research has proven that stereotyping is something that psychologically, which helps to fulfill basic needs, then unfortunately, it is difficult to change these ideas.
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